Apocrypha

Apocrypha is a term for religious writings regarded as hidden, noncanonical, or of disputed scriptural status, especially the books included in some Christian Old Testaments but absent from the Hebrew Bible and, more broadly, Jewish and Christian texts not accepted into the biblical canon.

Etymology and terminology

The word comes from Greek ἀπόκρυφος (apokryphos), meaning “hidden,” “concealed,” or “obscure,” from ἀποκρύπτειν, “to hide away.” In ancient literary culture, the term could describe books kept from public circulation, esoteric teachings, or writings of doubtful authenticity. Early Christian authors sometimes used “apocryphal” polemically for texts they considered secret, spurious, or heretical. In medieval and Reformation debates over the biblical canon, the term acquired a more technical sense: writings associated with the Bible but not granted full canonical authority in a given church.

Because the term is tradition-dependent, modern scholars often distinguish several categories. “Old Testament Apocrypha” commonly refers to books found in the Septuagint and some Christian canons but not in the Hebrew Bible. “Deuterocanonical” is the preferred Catholic term for books whose canonicity was settled later than that of the protocanonical books. “Anagignoskomena,” meaning “things that are read,” is used in Eastern Orthodoxy for books read in church or valued alongside the canon. “New Testament apocrypha” designates later Christian gospels, acts, epistles, and apocalypses that were not included in the New Testament. “Pseudepigrapha” is often used for a wider body of Jewish and Christian writings attributed to biblical figures but not accepted as canonical.

Old Testament Apocrypha

Jewish origins and the Greek Bible

The books most often called Old Testament Apocrypha were composed or circulated mainly between the third century BCE and the second century CE, during the Second Temple period. Some were originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic; others were composed in Greek. They include historical narratives, wisdom literature, prayers, legendary tales, and apocalyptic visions. Many reflect Jewish life under Hellenistic rule, the Maccabean crisis, diaspora piety, and developing ideas about resurrection, angels, martyrdom, and divine wisdom.

The Septuagint, the Greek translation of Jewish scriptures used by many Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians, included several of these works. Because early Christian communities often used the Septuagint, these books circulated widely in the church. Their status varied by region, language, and ecclesiastical authority. Some church fathers, such as Jerome, distinguished them from the Hebrew canon, while others, such as Augustine, accepted a broader list of scriptures.

Differing canons

The Jewish canon that became standard in rabbinic Judaism did not include the deuterocanonical books, although some of them were known and copied in Jewish circles. The Dead Sea Scrolls include fragments of works such as Tobit and Sirach, showing that they were valued by some Jewish groups before the common era.

Christian canons developed differently. The Catholic Church formally affirmed the canonicity of the deuterocanonical books at the Council of Trent in 1546, responding in part to Protestant challenges. The Eastern Orthodox Churches generally accept a somewhat wider collection, often described as anagignoskomena. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has an even broader canon, including works such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees. Protestant reformers, emphasizing the Hebrew canon for the Old Testament, classified these books as Apocrypha: useful for reading and moral instruction but not sufficient for establishing doctrine.

Books commonly included

The exact list varies by tradition, but the core Protestant Apocrypha usually includes Tobit, Judith, the Additions to Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (also called Ecclesiasticus), Baruch (including the Letter of Jeremiah), the Additions to Daniel, 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees. The Additions to Daniel include the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon. Other books appear in some Orthodox, Catholic, or older Protestant Bibles, such as 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, the Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151, 3 Maccabees, and 4 Maccabees.

These books differ in genre and origin. Tobit and Judith are edifying narratives set in Assyrian and Babylonian contexts. 1 and 2 Maccabees recount the Jewish revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes and the Hasmonean dynasty. Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach belong to the wisdom tradition, addressing virtue, divine justice, and the fear of God. Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah express penitence and polemic against idolatry. The Additions to Esther and Daniel expand canonical stories with prayers, liturgical material, and dramatic episodes.

New Testament apocrypha

“New Testament apocrypha” refers to a diverse group of early Christian writings that imitate or supplement the genres of the New Testament but were not ultimately canonized. Most surviving examples date from the second century CE onward, although some traditions may preserve earlier material. They include gospels, acts, epistles, apocalypses, and sayings collections. Their theological quality and orthodoxy vary widely; some were read by mainstream Christian communities, while others were rejected as heretical.

Gospels and sayings collections

Several apocryphal gospels expand the infancy, ministry, or passion narratives. The Protoevangelium of James focuses on the birth and childhood of Mary and the nativity of Jesus, influencing later Marian devotion and Christmas traditions. The Infancy Gospel of Thomas depicts the child Jesus performing miracles. The Gospel of Peter presents a passion narrative with distinctive details and was debated in early church writings. The Gospel of Thomas is a collection of sayings attributed to Jesus, discovered in a Coptic version at Nag Hammadi; it is important for the study of early Christian sayings traditions and ascetic or Gnostic-leaning interpretations.

Acts, epistles, and apocalypses

The apocryphal acts narrate the travels, miracles, and martyrdoms of apostles. Examples include the Acts of Paul, Acts of Peter, Acts of John, and Acts of Andrew. These works often emphasize asceticism, miracle-working, and conflict with pagan authorities. Apocryphal epistles include the Epistle of Barnabas, sometimes valued in early Christian circles, as well as later compositions such as 3 Corinthians and the Epistle to the Laodiceans. Apocalyptic works such as the Apocalypse of Peter and the Apocalypse of Paul describe visions of heaven, hell, and final judgment; the Shepherd of Hermas, though not always classified as apocrypha, was read by some early Christians and shows how fluid canonical boundaries once were.

Reception and suppression

Many New Testament apocrypha were not simply “forbidden books” in a modern sense. Some were used for instruction, devotion, or liturgical reading before canonical boundaries hardened. Others were criticized by bishops and theologians because they supported teachings regarded as Gnostic, docetic, or otherwise incompatible with emerging orthodoxy. As the New Testament canon took shape between the second and fourth centuries, criteria such as apostolic origin, conformity to the rule of faith, antiquity, and widespread liturgical use became decisive. Nevertheless, apocryphal stories continued to influence Christian art, hymnody, hagiography, and popular piety.

Jewish pseudepigrapha and related literature

The term Apocrypha is sometimes extended to Jewish writings that were not included in the Hebrew Bible and are not part of the Christian deuterocanonical books. Scholars often call these works pseudepigrapha because many are attributed to ancient figures such as Enoch, Abraham, Moses, or the patriarchs. Important examples include 1 Enoch, Jubilees, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Psalms of Solomon, the Assumption of Moses, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and the Life of Adam and Eve. These texts were preserved mainly by Christian communities in Greek, Syriac, Ethiopic, Armenian, Latin, and other languages.

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls transformed the study of this literature. Fragments of works such as 1 Enoch, Jubilees, Tobit, and Sirach showed that many apocryphal and pseudepigraphal ideas were part of broader Jewish literary culture before the destruction of the Second Temple. They illuminate debates about law, calendar, priesthood, messianism, angels, demons, and the end of days.

Theological and liturgical significance

For churches that regard the deuterocanonical books as scripture, these texts have doctrinal and liturgical importance. Passages from Wisdom and Sirach are used in Christian worship, and 2 Maccabees has been influential in discussions of prayer for the dead and the development of purgatorial doctrine. The stories of Tobit, Judith, and the Maccabees have shaped models of piety, courage, and fidelity under persecution.

In Protestant traditions, the Apocrypha has generally been read as historical or moral literature rather than as a basis for doctrine. The Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England stated that the church reads these books for example of life and instruction of manners but does not use them to establish doctrine. Many Protestant Bibles from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including early editions of the King James Version, printed the Apocrypha in a separate section, though later printing practices often omitted it.

Historical and scholarly importance

The Apocrypha and related literature are indispensable sources for the history of Judaism and Christianity. They help reconstruct the world between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, a period marked by Hellenistic cultural pressure, Maccabean independence, Roman rule, and diverse Jewish religious movements. They also preserve theological developments that became central in later biblical and post-biblical thought, including resurrection, final judgment, angelology, demonology, and personified wisdom.

For biblical studies, these writings illuminate the textual history of the Septuagint, Vulgate, and other ancient versions. They show how communities collected, translated, and interpreted sacred texts. For the study of early Christianity, they reveal the diversity of early belief and practice, the formation of orthodoxy, and the ongoing appeal to apostolic authority. For literary and cultural history, they provide narratives and motifs that influenced medieval romance, Byzantine icons, Western painting, hymnody, and modern biblical reception.

Modern usage and caution

Because “apocryphal” can imply secrecy, falsity, or inferiority, scholars use the term carefully. What one tradition calls “Apocrypha,” another may call “deuterocanonical” or “readable” scripture. Similarly, books excluded from the New Testament may be historically valuable without being judged as forgeries or heretical inventions. The term is therefore best understood as a canonical and confessional label rather than a single literary genre.

In contemporary usage, Apocrypha may refer narrowly to the Protestant Apocrypha, more broadly to noncanonical biblical literature, or popularly to any mysterious or disputed religious text. Despite these differences, the writings grouped under the name remain central to understanding how Jewish and Christian communities remembered, interpreted, and transmitted their sacred traditions.