Agesilaus II

Agesilaus II (c. 444 – c. 360 BC) was a Eurypontid king of the Greek city-state of Sparta who ruled from 399 to 360 BC, renowned for his military leadership, his steadfast defense of Spartan hegemony, and his embodiment of traditional Spartan austerity during a period of intense geopolitical conflict in ancient Greece.

Early Life and Accession to the Throne

Born around 444 BC, Agesilaus was the son of King Archidamus II and Eupolia. As a younger son, he was not initially expected to inherit the throne and was raised according to the rigorous Spartan agoge system. His life changed dramatically upon the death of his half-brother, King Agis II, in 399 BC. Although Agis left behind a son, Leotychides, the powerful Spartan general Lysander championed Agesilaus's claim to the throne. Lysander argued that Leotychides was illegitimate, spreading rumors that the boy was actually the son of the Athenian general Alcibiades, with whom Agis's wife, Timaea, had allegedly had an affair. Despite some opposition, Agesilaus successfully secured the Eurypontid kingship, though his relationship with Lysander would later become strained as the king sought to assert his independent authority.

Campaign in Asia Minor

Shortly after consolidating his power, Agesilaus was appointed to lead a Spartan expeditionary force to Asia Minor in 396 BC. The campaign was initially aimed at supporting the Greek cities in Ionia against the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Agesilaus achieved notable early successes, including a truce with the Persian satrap Pharnabazus and a decisive victory over Tissaphernes, whom he defeated and killed in battle. He also reorganized the Spartan army in Asia, integrating the Greek mercenaries and local forces into a highly effective fighting unit. However, his ambitions to push deeper into the Persian Empire were curtailed when he was recalled to Greece in 395 BC to confront a growing coalition of hostile states.

The Corinthian War

The recall of Agesilaus marked the beginning of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC), in which Sparta faced a coalition of Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, all financially backed by the Persian Empire. While marching back to Greece, Agesilaus reportedly expressed regret that the Persian King had driven him from Asia with "ten thousand Persian archers," referring to the gold coins used to bribe Greek states into war. Upon his return, he successfully navigated the complex political landscape of the Peloponnese and led the Spartan forces in several key engagements. His most significant victory during this conflict was the Battle of Coronea in 394 BC, where he decisively defeated the Theban army, securing Spartan control over central Greece and ensuring the safe passage of his troops through hostile territory. The war was ultimately concluded in 387 BC with the King's Peace (or Peace of Antalcidas), which heavily favored Spartan interests and Persian dominance over the Greek cities of Asia Minor.

Spartan Hegemony and the Boeotian War

Following the Corinthian War, Agesilaus worked tirelessly to maintain and expand Spartan hegemony across Greece. He intervened in various regional conflicts, including the campaign against the Mantinians and the Phliasians, often employing a mix of military force and diplomatic maneuvering. However, Spartan dominance was increasingly challenged by the resurgent power of Thebes. The tension culminated in the Boeotian War, during which Sparta suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. Although Agesilaus was not the primary commander at Leuctra—his co-king Cleombrotus led the army and was killed in the battle—Agesilaus bore the heavy burden of rebuilding Spartan morale and defending the homeland. When the brilliant Theban general Epaminondas invaded the Peloponnese and threatened Sparta itself in 362 BC, the aging and lame king personally organized the city's defense, successfully deterring a direct assault and preserving the city's independence, albeit at the cost of Sparta's undisputed supremacy in Greece.

Later Years and Egyptian Expedition

In his final years, Agesilaus sought to restore Spartan prestige and secure financial resources for his state by accepting a military command abroad. Around 361 BC, he traveled to Egypt to assist the native Egyptian pharaoh Tachos in his rebellion against the Persian Empire. However, upon arriving, Agesilaus became embroiled in an Egyptian dynastic dispute and transferred his allegiance to Tachos's rival, Nectanebo II. With Agesilaus's military expertise, Nectanebo successfully secured his throne. Having achieved his objectives and secured a substantial sum of money for Sparta, the elderly king began his journey home.

Death and Legacy

Agesilaus II died around 360 BC at the age of 84, in Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), while on his way back to Greece. His body was transported back to Sparta, where he was given a state funeral. Despite a physical disability—a limp resulting from a childhood injury or congenital condition, which the Spartans had previously interpreted as an omen of a "lame kingship"—Agesilaus was widely celebrated for his personal integrity, military acumen, and adherence to the austere Lycurgan laws. His contemporary, the historian Xenophon, who held him in high esteem, wrote a panegyric in his honor, highlighting his courage, frugality, and dedication to the state. While his reign saw the gradual decline of Spartan imperial power, Agesilaus II remains one of the most prominent and capable military leaders of classical antiquity, remembered as the last great champion of traditional Spartan supremacy.